RAD-DINO was trained with data from three countries, therefore it might be biased towards population in the training data. Underlying biases of the training datasets may not be well characterized.

Installation

pip install rad-dino

Usage

Encode an image

python

>>> from rad_dino import RadDino
>>> from rad_dino.utils import download_sample_image
>>> encoder = RadDino()
>>> image = download_sample_image()
>>> image
<PIL.JpegImagePlugin.JpegImageFile image mode=RGB size=2765x2505 at 0x7CCD5C014050>
>>> cls_embeddings, patch_embeddings = encoder.extract_features(image)
>>> cls_embeddings.shape, patch_embeddings.shape
(torch.Size([1, 768]), torch.Size([1, 768, 37, 37]))

Weights for fine-tuning

We have released a checkpoint compatible with the original DINOv2 code to help researchers fine-tune our model.

We can use the hub model and load the RAD-DINO weights. Let's clone the DINOv2 repository so we can import the code for the head.

git clone https://github.com/facebookresearch/dinov2.git

python

>>> import torch
>>> from rad_dino.utils import safetensors_to_state_dict
>>> rad_dino_gh = torch.hub.load("./dinov2", "dinov2_vitb14")
>>> backbone_state_dict = safetensors_to_state_dict("backbone_compatible.safetensors")
>>> rad_dino_gh.load_state_dict(backbone_state_dict, strict=True)
<All keys matched successfully>

The weights of the head are also released:

python

>>> from dinov2.layers import DINOHead
>>> rad_dino_head_gh = DINOHead(
...    in_dim=768,
...    out_dim=65536,
...    hidden_dim=2048,
...    bottleneck_dim=256,
...    nlayers=3,
... )
>>> head_state_dict = safetensors_to_state_dict("dino_head.safetensors")
>>> rad_dino_head_gh.load_state_dict(head_state_dict, strict=True)
<All keys matched successfully>

Configs and augmentation

The configuration files ssl_default_config.yaml and vitb14_cxr.yaml, and the augmentations module are also available in the repository to help researchers reproduce the training procedure with our hyperparameters.

Training details

Training data

We used images from five public, deidentified chest X-ray datasets to train this checkpoint of RAD-DINO.

Dataset	Num. images
MIMIC-CXR	368 960
CheXpert	223 648
NIH-CXR	112 120
PadChest	136 787
BRAX	41 260
TOTAL	882 775

Images in the validation and test sets used to train MAIRA were excluded from the training set of RAD-DINO. The list of image files used for training is available at ./training_images.csv.

Note this checkpoint is different from the one in the paper, where some private data was used (and fewer GPUs). The checkpoint shared here is trained for 35 000 iterations (the total number of iterations in the run was 100 000, but we selected this checkpoint using linear probing on the validation sets of the evaluation datasets described in the paper). We used 16 nodes with 4 A100 GPUs each, and a batch size of 40 images per GPU.

Training procedure

We refer to the manuscript for a detailed description of the training procedure.

Preprocessing

All DICOM files were resized using B-spline interpolation so that their shorter size was 518, min-max scaled to [0, 255], and stored as PNG files.

Training hyperparameters

Training regime: fp16 using PyTorch-FSDP mixed-precision.

Evaluation

Our evaluation is best described in the manuscript.

Environmental impact

Hardware type: NVIDIA A100 GPUs
Hours used: 40 hours/GPU × 16 nodes × 4 GPUs/node = 2560 GPU-hours
Cloud provider: Azure
Compute region: West US 2
Carbon emitted: 222 kg CO₂ eq.

Compute infrastructure

RAD-DINO was trained on Azure Machine Learning.

Hardware

We used 16 Standard_NC96ads_A100_v4 nodes with four NVIDIA A100 (80 GB) GPUs each.

Software

We leveraged the code in DINOv2 for training. We used SimpleITK and Pydicom for processing of DICOM files.

Citation

BibTeX:

bibtex

@article{perez-garcia_exploring_2025,
 title = {Exploring scalable medical image encoders beyond text supervision},
 issn = {2522-5839},
 url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-024-00965-w},
 doi = {10.1038/s42256-024-00965-w},
 journal = {Nature Machine Intelligence},
 author = {P{\'e}rez-Garc{\'i}a, Fernando and Sharma, Harshita and Bond-Taylor, Sam and Bouzid, Kenza and Salvatelli, Valentina and Ilse, Maximilian and Bannur, Shruthi and Castro, Daniel C. and Schwaighofer, Anton and Lungren, Matthew P. and Wetscherek, Maria Teodora and Codella, Noel and Hyland, Stephanie L. and Alvarez-Valle, Javier and Oktay, Ozan},
 month = jan,
 year = {2025},
}

APA:

Pérez-García, F., Sharma, H., Bond-Taylor, S., Bouzid, K., Salvatelli, V., Ilse, M., Bannur, S., Castro, D. C., Schwaighofer, A., Lungren, M. P., Wetscherek, M. T., Codella, N., Hyland, S. L., Alvarez-Valle, J., & Oktay, O. (2025). Exploring scalable medical image encoders beyond text supervision. In Nature Machine Intelligence. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-024-00965-w

Model card contact

Fernando Pérez-García (fperezgarcia@microsoft.com).

microsoft/rad-dino

Model card for RAD-DINO

Model description

Uses

Biases, risks, and limitations

Installation

Usage

Encode an image

Weights for fine-tuning

Configs and augmentation

Training details

Training data

Training procedure

Preprocessing

Training hyperparameters

Evaluation

Environmental impact

Compute infrastructure

Hardware

Software

Citation

Model card contact

microsoft/
rad-dino