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Llama 3.1 Swallow - Built with Llama

Llama 3.1 Swallow is a series of large language models (8B, 70B) that were built by continual pre-training on the Meta Llama 3.1 models. Llama 3.1 Swallow enhanced the Japanese language capabilities of the original Llama 3.1 while retaining the English language capabilities. We use approximately 200 billion tokens that were sampled from a large Japanese web corpus (Swallow Corpus Version 2), Japanese and English Wikipedia articles, and mathematical and coding contents, etc (see the Training Datasets section of the base model) for continual pre-training. The instruction-tuned models (Instruct) were built by supervised fine-tuning (SFT) on the synthetic data specially built for Japanese. See the Swallow Model Index section to find other model variants.

Release History

October 08, 2024: Released Llama-3.1-Swallow-8B-v0.1, Llama-3.1-Swallow-8B-Instruct-v0.1, Llama-3.1-Swallow-70B-v0.1, and Llama-3.1-Swallow-70B-Instruct-v0.1.

Swallow Model Index

Model	Llama-3.1-Swallow v0.1	Llama-3.1-Swallow-Instruct v0.1	Llama-3.1-Swallow v0.2	Llama-3.1-Swallow-Instruct v0.2	Llama-3.1-Swallow-Instruct v0.3
8B	Link	Link	Link	Link	Link
70B	Link	Link			Link

logo

The website https://swallow-llm.github.io/ provides large language models developed by the Swallow team.

Model Details

Model type: Please refer to Llama 3.1 MODEL_CARD for details on the model architecture.
Language(s): Japanese English
Library: Megatron-LM
Tokenizer: Please refer to Llama 3.1 blog for details on the tokenizer.
Contact: swallow[at]nlp.c.titech.ac.jp

Model Performance

Japanese tasks

Model	JCom.	JEMHopQA	NIILC	JSQuAD	XL-Sum	MGSM	WMT20-en-ja	WMT20-ja-en	JMMLU	JHumanEval	Ja Avg
	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	1-shot	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	5-shot	0-shot
	EM acc	Char-F1	Char-F1	Char-F1	ROUGE-2	EM acc	BLEU	BLEU	EM acc	pass@1
RakutenAI-7B-chat	0.9035	0.2600	0.4619	0.8647	0.1339	0.2120	0.2667	0.1966	0.4504	0.2299	0.3980
Qwen2-7B-Instruct	0.8856	0.3902	0.3859	0.8967	0.1277	0.5720	0.2041	0.1909	0.5713	0.5683	0.4793
Qwen2.5-7B-Instruct	0.9151	0.4293	0.3910	0.8908	0.1676	0.6240	0.2108	0.1916	0.6252	0.5305	0.4976
Tanuki-8B-dpo-v1.0	0.2770	0.2937	0.3710	0.6669	0.1016	0.4280	0.2385	0.1820	0.3078	0.2555	0.3122
Llama 3 8B Instruct	0.8785	0.3812	0.3936	0.8955	0.1273	0.4160	0.2143	0.2035	0.4719	0.2872	0.4269
Llama 3.1 8B Instruct	0.8829	0.4272	0.4112	0.8856	0.1481	0.5280	0.2174	0.1990	0.5086	0.4976	0.4706
Llama 3 Youko 8B Instruct	0.9196	0.4850	0.5178	0.9001	0.2085	0.4680	0.2559	0.1906	0.4691	0.2695	0.4684
Llama-3-ELYZA-JP-8B	0.9017	0.5124	0.5016	0.9113	0.1677	0.4600	0.2509	0.1846	0.4829	0.3811	0.4754
Llama 3 heron brain 8B v0.3	0.9231	0.4933	0.5694	0.9056	0.2178	0.4560	0.2771	0.2168	0.4993	0.3177	0.4876
Llama 3 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.9178	0.4963	0.5168	0.9088	0.1296	0.4880	0.2522	0.2254	0.4835	0.3927	0.4811
Llama 3.1 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.9240	0.5874	0.5736	0.9170	0.1380	0.5080	0.2820	0.2282	0.5301	0.3665	0.5055

English tasks

Model	OpenBookQA	TriviaQA	HellaSWAG	SQuAD2.0	XWINO	MMLU	GSM8K	BBH	HumanEval	En Avg
	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	4-shot	5-shot	4-shot	3-shot	0-shot
	Acc	EM acc	Acc	EM acc	Acc	Acc	EM acc	CoT EM Acc	pass@1
RakutenAI-7B-chat	0.4160	0.5971	0.6465	0.3091	0.8886	0.5757	0.3139	0.4958	0.2671	0.5011
Qwen2-7B-Instruct	0.4000	0.5468	0.6146	0.3518	0.8852	0.7073	0.6300	0.3101	0.6354	0.5646
Qwen2.5-7B-Instruct	0.4280	0.5187	0.6240	0.2626	0.8761	0.7419	0.7415	0.2150	0.6360	0.5604
Tanuki-8B-dpo-v1.0	0.3340	0.2838	0.4696	0.2395	0.8168	0.3772	0.4867	0.3350	0.2805	0.4026
Llama 3 8B Instruct	0.3880	0.6687	0.5834	0.3743	0.8903	0.6567	0.7453	0.6478	0.5415	0.6107
Llama 3.1 8B Instruct	0.3700	0.6994	0.5920	0.3783	0.9037	0.6809	0.7430	0.6928	0.6293	0.6321
Llama 3 Youko 8B Instruct	0.4080	0.6129	0.5983	0.3370	0.8981	0.5964	0.5618	0.4012	0.2750	0.5209
Llama-3-ELYZA-JP-8B	0.3200	0.5502	0.5224	0.3631	0.8809	0.5875	0.5701	0.3213	0.4604	0.5084
Llama 3 heron brain 8B v0.3	0.3580	0.6563	0.5686	0.3726	0.9002	0.6213	0.5777	0.6409	0.3720	0.5631
Llama 3 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.3720	0.6557	0.5861	0.3648	0.9002	0.6315	0.5959	0.6391	0.4238	0.5743
Llama 3.1 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.3900	0.6488	0.6151	0.3553	0.8912	0.6237	0.6050	0.6417	0.3787	0.5722

MT-Bench JA

Model	coding	extraction	humanities	math	reasoning	roleplay	stem	writing	JMTAvg
RakutenAI-7B-chat	0.2475	0.3522	0.4692	0.2140	0.3926	0.4427	0.3977	0.4434	0.3699
Qwen2-7B-Instruct	0.4635	0.6909	0.6857	0.5970	0.5042	0.6667	0.5353	0.6808	0.6030
Qwen2.5-7B-Instruct	0.5111	0.7489	0.6913	0.5742	0.4851	0.6810	0.5350	0.6810	0.6134
Tanuki-8B-dpo-v1.0	0.3019	0.4772	0.5658	0.4129	0.3590	0.5120	0.4770	0.6159	0.4652
Llama 3 8B Instruct	0.3744	0.6876	0.6225	0.2070	0.5032	0.5248	0.5326	0.4884	0.4926
Llama 3.1 8B Instruct	0.3234	0.7362	0.4973	0.4787	0.3210	0.4670	0.4656	0.4314	0.4651
Llama 3 Youko 8B Instruct	0.2950	0.7332	0.7125	0.2533	0.4987	0.6514	0.5438	0.7091	0.5496
Llama-3-ELYZA-JP-8B	0.2908	0.6421	0.6406	0.3088	0.5500	0.6740	0.5251	0.6744	0.5382
Llama 3 heron brain 8B v0.3	0.2929	0.5635	0.6241	0.2135	0.4582	0.5354	0.5273	0.5099	0.4656
Llama 3 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.3547	0.6508	0.5371	0.2718	0.4007	0.5493	0.4752	0.5730	0.4766
Llama 3.1 Swallow 8B Instruct	0.3132	0.7734	0.6645	0.3880	0.5230	0.5711	0.4953	0.5330	0.5327

Evaluation Benchmarks

Japanese evaluation benchmarks

We used llm-jp-eval(v1.3.0), JP Language Model Evaluation Harness(commit #9b42d41) and Code Generation LM Evaluation Harness(commit #0261c52). The details are as follows:

Multiple-choice question answering (JCommonsenseQA [Kurihara et al., 2022])
Open-ended question answering (JEMHopQA [Ishii et al., 2024])
Open-ended question answering (NIILC [関根, 2003])
Machine reading comprehension (JSQuAD [Kurihara et al., 2022])
Automatic summarization (XL-Sum [Hasan et al., 2021])
Machine translation (WMT2020 ja-en [Barrault et al., 2020])
Machine translation (WMT2020 en-ja [Barrault et al., 2020])
Mathematical reasoning (MGSM [Shi et al., 2023])
Academic exams (JMMLU [尹ら, 2024])
Code generation (JHumanEval [佐藤ら, 2024])

English evaluation benchmarks

We used the Language Model Evaluation Harness(v.0.4.2) and Code Generation LM Evaluation Harness(commit #0261c52). The details are as follows:

Multiple-choice question answering (OpenBookQA [Mihaylov et al., 2018])
Open-ended question answering (TriviaQA [Joshi et al., 2017])
Machine reading comprehension (SQuAD2 [Rajpurkar et al., 2018])
Commonsense reasoning (XWINO [Tikhonov and Ryabinin, 2021])
Natural language inference (HellaSwag [Zellers et al., 2019])
Mathematical reasoning (GSM8K [Cobbe et al., 2021])
Reasoning (BBH (BIG-Bench-Hard) [Suzgun et al., 2023])
Academic exams (MMLU [Hendrycks et al., 2021])
Code generation (HumanEval [Chen et al., 2021])

MT-Bench JA

We used Japanese MT-Bench to assess the capabilities of multi-turn dialogue with the following settings:

Implementation: FastChat [Zheng+, 2023] (commit #e86e70d0)
Question: Nejumi LLM-Leaderboard NEO, mtbench_ja_question_v3
Reference Answer: Nejumi LLM-Leaderboard NEO, mtbench_ja_referenceanswer_v1
Prompt for Judge: Nejumi LLM-Leaderboard NEO, mtbench_ja_prompt_v1
Judge: gpt-4-1106-preview
Scoring: Absolute scale normalized to a 0-1 range, averaged over five runs.

Usage

pip install vllm

python

from transformers import AutoTokenizer
from vllm import LLM, SamplingParams

model_name = "tokyotech-llm/Llama-3.1-Swallow-8B-Instruct-v0.1"

tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_name)
llm = LLM(
    model=model_name,
    tensor_parallel_size=1,
)

sampling_params = SamplingParams(
    temperature=0.6, top_p=0.9, max_tokens=512, stop="<|eot_id|>"
)


message = [
    {"role": "system", "content": "あなたは誠実で優秀な日本人のアシスタントです。"},
    {
        "role": "user",
        "content": "東京の紅葉した公園で、東京タワーと高層ビルを背景に、空を舞うツバメと草地に佇むラマが出会う温かな物語を書いてください。",
    },
]
prompt = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
    message, tokenize=False, add_generation_prompt=True
)

output = llm.generate(prompt, sampling_params)

print(output[0].outputs[0].text)

Training Datasets

Instruction Tuning

The following datasets were used for the instruction tuning.

Japanese
- Llama-3.1-LMSYS-Chat-1M-Synth-Ja
  - Single-turn Japanese instruction dataset synthesized and derived from lmsys-chat-1m [Zhang+, ICLR24]). First-turn user instructions were translated into Japanese via DeepL (machine translation), and assistant responses were generated using Llama-3.1-405B-Instruct. Llama-3.1-70B-Instruct served as a judge for rejection sampling (n=6). Conversations containing personally identifiable information (PII) and template-based user instructions were removed. Duplicate instructions were removed.
- Swallow-Magpie-Ultra-v0.1
  - A Japanese variant of the filtered-magpie-ultra-en dataset, translated into Japanese by gemma-2-27b-it.
- Swallow-Gemma-Magpie-v0.1
  - A Japanese synthetic instruction tuning dataset from scratch, generated by gemma-2-27b-it. User instructions were created with prompts specific to each topic, and assistant responses were generated for these instructions. The conversations were then heuristically filtered for quality and length.
English
- Llama-3.1-LMSYS-Chat-1M-Synth-En
  - The creation process is similar to Llama-3.1-LMSYS-Chat-1M-Synth-Ja, but this version uses the original English user instructions. The assistant responses were generated in English as well. Rejection sampling was not applied for this version.
- filtered-magpie-ultra-en
  - A subset of the magpie-ultra dataset, developed following the MAGPIE recipe [Xu+, arXiv24] using Llama-3.1-405B-Instruct. This subset includes only samples rated as 'average,' 'good,' or 'excellent.'

Risks and Limitations

The models released here are still in the early stages of our research and development and have not been tuned to ensure outputs align with human intent and safety considerations.

Acknowledgements

We thank Meta Research for releasing Llama 3.1 under a generous open license.

We received various supports including:

AIST project: "Research and Development of Foundation Models for Generative AI in the Physical Domain"
NEDO project: "Development of Artificial Intelligence Application Technology to Support Judgment in Design Risk Assessment Work Based on the Perspective of Skilled Persons" (JPNP18002) of "Development of Integration Technology as the Core of Next Generation Artificial Intelligence and Robotics"
MEXT project: "Formation of R&D center to ensure transparency and reliability of generative AI models"
AIST program: Large Generative AI Development Support Program

License

META LLAMA 3.1 COMMUNITY LICENSE and Gemma Terms of Use

Authors

Here are the team members:

From Tokyo Institute of Technology Okazaki Laboratory, the following members:
From Tokyo Institute of Technology YOKOTA Laboratory, the following members:
From Artificial Intelligence Research Center, AIST, Japan, the following members:
- Hiroya Takamura

How to cite

If you find our work helpful, please feel free to cite these papers.

@inproceedings{Fujii:COLM2024,
   title={Continual Pre-Training for Cross-Lingual LLM Adaptation:
Enhancing Japanese Language Capabilities},
   author={Kazuki Fujii and Taishi Nakamura and Mengsay Loem and Hiroki
Iida and Masanari Ohi and Kakeru Hattori and Hirai Shota and Sakae
Mizuki and Rio Yokota and Naoaki Okazaki},
   booktitle="Proceedings of the First Conference on Language Modeling",
   series={COLM},
   pages="(to appear)",
   year="2024",
   month=oct,
   address={University of Pennsylvania, USA},
}

@inproceedings{Okazaki:COLM2024,
   title={Building a Large Japanese Web Corpus for Large Language Models},
   author={Naoaki Okazaki and Kakeru Hattori and Hirai Shota and Hiroki
Iida and Masanari Ohi and Kazuki Fujii and Taishi Nakamura and Mengsay
Loem and Rio Yokota and Sakae Mizuki},
   booktitle="Proceedings of the First Conference on Language Modeling",
   series={COLM},
   pages="(to appear)",
   year="2024",
   month=oct,
   address={University of Pennsylvania, USA},
}

@misc{ma:arxiv2025,
      title={Building Instruction-Tuning Datasets from Human-Written Instructions with Open-Weight Large Language Models}, 
      author={Youmi Ma and Sakae Mizuki and Kazuki Fujii and Taishi Nakamura and Masanari Ohi and Hinari Shimada and Taihei Shiotani and Koshiro Saito and Koki Maeda and Kakeru Hattori and Takumi Okamoto and Shigeki Ishida and Rio Yokota and Hiroya Takamura and Naoaki Okazaki},
      year={2025},
      eprint={2503.23714},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.CL},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.23714}, 
}

References

tex

@misc{dubey2024llama3herdmodels,
      title={The Llama 3 Herd of Models}, 
      author={Abhimanyu Dubey and Abhinav Jauhri and Abhinav Pandey and Abhishek Kadian and Ahmad Al-Dahle and Aiesha Letman and Akhil Mathur and Alan Schelten and Amy Yang and Angela Fan et al.},
      year={2024},
      eprint={2407.21783},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.AI},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.21783}, 
}