This U‑Net model masks features in Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) height maps. It outputs a probability mask image, the same size as the raw AFM image; the accompanying python package, afMLevel code then applies a threshold (typically 0.5) to produce a binary mask. This mask can then be used in automated levelling routines as implemented in the level_mask_ml() function in afMLevel, that output levelled images.

Note: afMLevel includes a second model, afMLevel-background-unet, that predicts the noise background , without requiring a masking step. Both models will be described in the accompanying paper and the background model is found here: https://huggingface.co/Heath-AFM-Lab/afMLevel-background-unet

Model Details

This model is part of the afMLevel project.

Model Description

The afMLevel mask model is a 7‑layer U‑Net architecture implemented in PyTorch, designed to segment features in AFM height map images so that they can be excluded during traditional levelling routines (plane fits and median line subtraction). The network was trained on 256 × 256‑pixel inputs, and therefore expects images of this size at inference time.

In order to apply the model and use it to level AFM images the afMLevel repository includes tools for:

image preprocessing and resizing,
running inference,
generating binary masks,
applying the masks in levelling routines,
integrating the model into batch-processing pipelines for HS-AFM videos and image sets.

Model Card Information

Developed by: Maya Tekchandani
Maintained by: Dr Daniel E. Rollins, Dr George R. Heath
Principal Investigator: Dr George R. Heath
Affiliation: Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, UK
Funded by:
- Maya Tekchandani is supported by a studentship funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.
- Dr Daniel E. Rollins and Dr George R. Heath funded by Engineering and Physical Science Research Council grant EP/W034735/1.
Shared by: Heath-AFM-Lab
Model type: U‑Net segmentation model for AFM image feature masking
License: BSD‑3‑Clause
Finetuned from model: None (trained from scratch)

Model Sources

Repository: https://github.com/mayatek1/afMLevel
Paper: Tekchandani et al., AFMLevel: Deep learning U-Net Models for levelling Atomic Force Microscopy Images and Movies (in preparation, 2026)
Demo: Demonstration notebooks

Uses

This model is designed for use within the afMLevel mask_model module.

Direct Use

The afMLevel inference code operates on NumPy arrays, so raw AFM files must first be loaded using an external reader such as playnano, AFMReader, or a custom loader. Once loaded, the afMLevel package and notebooks handle inference and output of either the predicted mask or the levelled image directly.

The model has been primarily tested on biological AFM data (membranes, proteins, DNA origami, lattices, fibres) and is best suited to that context, though it may generalise to other sample types with similar imaging characteristics.

Downstream Use

Integration into playnano, enabling end-to-end reading and levelling of high-speed AFM (HS-AFM) movies; the afMLevel package works as a plugin for playnano for easy integration (use processing step level_ml_mask).
Preprocessing for segmentation, particle detection, or other AFM analysis tools.

Out‑of‑Scope Use

This model is not intended for:

predicting physical or mechanical properties of samples,
interpreting AFM contact mechanics,
working on specialized AFM modes (KPFM, MFM, FMM, etc.) without validation,
non-biological samples, without first validating performance on representative images.

Bias, Risks, and Limitations

The model was trained on a specific dataset of real AFM height maps; performance may degrade for very different imaging modes, scan sizes, or materials.
Extremely noisy scans or those containing jump‑to‑contact instabilities may produce inaccurate mask predictions.
The mask model cannot simultaneously threshold both high features (blobs) and low features (holes); images containing both may not be levelled optimally. In such cases the background model is recommended instead.
Users should visually inspect masks and levelled outputs before scientific interpretation.

Recommendations

Manually verify a representative subset of levelled images.
For images with complex topographies (e.g. three or more distinct height planes, or both holes and blobs), consider using the background model (MLBackground) as an alternative or complement.
Avoid applying the model to imaging modes it was not trained on without validation.

How to Get Started with the Model

Use the model through the afMLevel repository, which handles inference, binary mask generation and levelling. Demonstration notebooks are available within the GitHub repository.

Training Details

The model was trained from scratch on real AFM topography data using the PyTorch framework.

Training Data

This model was trained on a dataset of 2,001 real AFM height‑map images from several AFM labs, spanning a range of biological sample types (membranes, proteins, DNA origami, lattices, fibres), AFM instruments (JPK, Bruker/RIBM, Asylum), and image features (blobs, holes, fibres, strong line noise, multiple planes).

To increase dataset size and improve generalization, images were augmented using:

reflection along the y-axis,
rotation by 180°,
synthetic line-noise artefacts.

This produced 10,005 training images for the mask model. An 80:20 train‑validation split was used.

Ground-truth labels were derived from manually levelled images by applying Otsu thresholding to the manually levelled image.

Training Procedure

Architecture: 7‑layer U‑Net with large convolutional filters (7×7)
Framework: PyTorch
Optimizer: Adam
Learning rate: 0.0005
Objective: classification per pixel
Activation function: ReLU
Batch normalisation: applied after each convolutional layer
Dropout: none (p = 0.0)
Batch size: 32
Hardware: trained using GPU acceleration
Training images: 10,005 (mask model)
Train/validation split: 80:20 (random)
Loss functions used: Binary Cross-Entropy (BCE) and Dice loss (combined as a single loss: BCE + Dice)
Loss‑curve diagnostics were used to monitor convergence.

Preprocessing

Input images were preprocessed identically to the training data:

An initial 1st-order plane fit applied in x and y.
Min-max normalisation to [0, 1].
Resizing to 256 × 256.

For the mask model, nearest-neighbour interpolation was used for resizing.

Training Hyperparameters

Training regime: fp32

Speeds, Sizes, Times

Model file size: 598 MiB
Training epochs: 69

Evaluation

The performance of the ML‑generated masks was evaluated indirectly through their impact on automated levelling. The core quantitative metric used for assessment was the Mean Squared Error (MSE) between the output of the afMLevel auto-levelling routines, using ML model generated masks, and a manually levelled ground‑truth image. The results were also assessed visually by the developers.

Full details are in the paper: In preparation (check the GitHub for updates).

Testing Data & Metrics

Testing Data

Evaluation was performed on a held‑out set of real AFM height‑map images spanning a wide range of:

biological samples,
imaging conditions,
noise levels,
numbers of surface planes,
scan artefacts (e.g., line noise, streaks).

Metrics

Primary metric: MSE between auto‑levelled and manually levelled images.
Distribution analysis: mean vs. median MSE; a large difference between the two indicates that failed levelling produces pronounced artefacts.
Success‑rate: proportion of images below an MSE threshold of 0.1, selected as a conservative boundary for “well‑levelled” outputs.
Visual inspection score: percentage of images judged well-levelled by developer inspection, used as a complementary subjective metric.

Results

Initial internal testing indicates that the ML‑generated masks enable reliable automated levelling across a broad range of AFM images, including scans with varied noise levels and multiple height planes. Quantitative results and statistical analyses will be provided in the accompanying paper (in preparation, check the GitHub for updates).

Citation

Tekchandani et al., AFMLevel: Deep learning U-Net Models for levelling Atomic Force Microscopy Images and Movies (in preparation, 2026)

Model Card Authors

Maya Tekchandani
Dr Daniel E. Rollins
Dr George R. Heath

Contact

For questions or issues, please open a GitHub issue at https://github.com/mayatek1/afMLevel or contact:

George R. Heath- University of Leeds

Email: G.R.Heath@leeds.ac.uk

Heath-AFM-Lab/afMLevel-mask-unet

afMLevel-mask-unet