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tomaarsen/
splade-distilbert-base-uncased-nq-16bs-1e-6

Name: splade-distilbert-base-uncased-nq-16bs-1e-6
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splade-distilbert-base-uncased trained on Natural Questions

This is a SPLADE Sparse Encoder model finetuned from distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased on the natural-questions dataset using the sentence-transformers library. It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 30522-dimensional sparse vector space and can be used for semantic search and sparse retrieval.

Model Details

Model Description

Model Type: SPLADE Sparse Encoder
Base model: distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased
Maximum Sequence Length: 256 tokens
Output Dimensionality: 30522 dimensions
Similarity Function: Dot Product
Training Dataset:
- natural-questions
Language: en
License: apache-2.0

Model Sources

Documentation: Sentence Transformers Documentation
Documentation: Sparse Encoder Documentation
Repository: Sentence Transformers on GitHub
Hugging Face: Sparse Encoders on Hugging Face

Full Model Architecture

SparseEncoder(
  (0): MLMTransformer({'max_seq_length': 256, 'do_lower_case': False, 'architecture': 'DistilBertForMaskedLM'})
  (1): SpladePooling({'pooling_strategy': 'max', 'activation_function': 'relu', 'word_embedding_dimension': 30522})
)

Usage

Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

pip install -U sentence-transformers

Then you can load this model and run inference.

python

from sentence_transformers import SparseEncoder

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SparseEncoder("tomaarsen/splade-distilbert-base-uncased-nq-16bs-1e-6")
# Run inference
queries = [
    "who is cornelius in the book of acts",
]
documents = [
    'Cornelius the Centurion Cornelius (Greek: Κορνήλιος) was a Roman centurion who is considered by Christians to be one of the first Gentiles to convert to the faith, as related in Acts of the Apostles.',
    "Joe Ranft Ranft reunited with Lasseter when he was hired by Pixar in 1991 as their head of story.[1] There he worked on all of their films produced up to 2006; this included Toy Story (for which he received an Academy Award nomination) and A Bug's Life, as the co-story writer and others as story supervisor. His final film was Cars. He also voiced characters in many of the films, including Heimlich the caterpillar in A Bug's Life, Wheezy the penguin in Toy Story 2, and Jacques the shrimp in Finding Nemo.[1]",
    'Wonderful Tonight "Wonderful Tonight" is a ballad written by Eric Clapton. It was included on Clapton\'s 1977 album Slowhand. Clapton wrote the song about Pattie Boyd.[1] The female vocal harmonies on the song are provided by Marcella Detroit (then Marcy Levy) and Yvonne Elliman.',
]
query_embeddings = model.encode_query(queries)
document_embeddings = model.encode_document(documents)
print(query_embeddings.shape, document_embeddings.shape)
# [1, 30522] [3, 30522]

# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings
similarities = model.similarity(query_embeddings, document_embeddings)
print(similarities)
# tensor([[110.0875,  19.2147,  16.0325]])

Evaluation

Metrics

Sparse Information Retrieval

Datasets: NanoMSMARCO, NanoNFCorpus and NanoNQ
Evaluated with SparseInformationRetrievalEvaluator

Metric	NanoMSMARCO	NanoNFCorpus	NanoNQ
dot_accuracy@1	0.32	0.34	0.36
dot_accuracy@3	0.48	0.44	0.54
dot_accuracy@5	0.58	0.5	0.6
dot_accuracy@10	0.72	0.58	0.72
dot_precision@1	0.32	0.34	0.36
dot_precision@3	0.16	0.2733	0.18
dot_precision@5	0.116	0.252	0.12
dot_precision@10	0.072	0.212	0.074
dot_recall@1	0.32	0.0213	0.34
dot_recall@3	0.48	0.0349	0.51
dot_recall@5	0.58	0.0507	0.56
dot_recall@10	0.72	0.0735	0.67
dot_ndcg@10	0.5051	0.2425	0.5007
dot_mrr@10	0.4384	0.4082	0.4638
dot_map@100	0.4473	0.0893	0.4508
query_active_dims	100.38	161.52	69.68
query_sparsity_ratio	0.9967	0.9947	0.9977
corpus_active_dims	234.7656	290.7535	225.8771
corpus_sparsity_ratio	0.9923	0.9905	0.9926
avg_flops	14.8554	33.2309	11.5499

Sparse Nano BEIR

Dataset: NanoBEIR_mean
Evaluated with SparseNanoBEIREvaluator with these parameters:
json
1{ 2 "dataset_names": [ 3 "msmarco", 4 "nfcorpus", 5 "nq" 6 ], 7 "dataset_id": "sentence-transformers/NanoBEIR-en" 8}

Metric	Value
dot_accuracy@1	0.34
dot_accuracy@3	0.4867
dot_accuracy@5	0.56
dot_accuracy@10	0.6733
dot_precision@1	0.34
dot_precision@3	0.2044
dot_precision@5	0.1627
dot_precision@10	0.1193
dot_recall@1	0.2271
dot_recall@3	0.3416
dot_recall@5	0.3969
dot_recall@10	0.4878
dot_ndcg@10	0.4161
dot_mrr@10	0.4368
dot_map@100	0.3292
query_active_dims	110.5267
query_sparsity_ratio	0.9964
corpus_active_dims	244.0188
corpus_sparsity_ratio	0.992
avg_flops	16.6134

Training Details

Training Dataset

natural-questions

Dataset: natural-questions at f9e894e
Size: 99,000 training samples
Columns: query and answer
Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:
query answer
type string string
details
min: 10 tokens
mean: 11.71 tokens
max: 26 tokens
min: 4 tokens
mean: 128.91 tokens
max: 256 tokens

Samples:

query	answer
`who played the father in papa don't preach`	`Alex McArthur Alex McArthur (born March 6, 1957) is an American actor.`
`where was the location of the battle of hastings`	`Battle of Hastings The Battle of Hastings[a] was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England. It took place approximately 7 miles (11 kilometres) northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.`
`how many puppies can a dog give birth to`	`Canine reproduction The largest litter size to date was set by a Neapolitan Mastiff in Manea, Cambridgeshire, UK on November 29, 2004; the litter was 24 puppies.[22]`

Loss: SpladeLoss with these parameters:
json
1{ 2 "loss": "SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss(scale=1.0, similarity_fct='dot_score', gather_across_devices=False, directions=('query_to_doc',), partition_mode='joint')", 3 "document_regularizer_weight": 3e-05, 4 "query_regularizer_weight": 5e-05 5}

Evaluation Dataset

natural-questions

Dataset: natural-questions at f9e894e
Size: 1,000 evaluation samples
Columns: query and answer
Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:
query answer
type string string
details
min: 10 tokens
mean: 11.69 tokens
max: 23 tokens
min: 15 tokens
mean: 129.31 tokens
max: 256 tokens

Samples:

query	answer
`where is the tiber river located in italy`	Tiber The Tiber (/ˈtaɪbər/, Latin: Tiberis,[1] Italian: Tevere [ˈteːvere])[2] is the third-longest river in Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing 406 kilometres (252 mi) through Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio, where it is joined by the river Aniene, to the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Ostia and Fiumicino.[3] It drains a basin estimated at 17,375 square kilometres (6,709 sq mi). The river has achieved lasting fame as the main watercourse of the city of Rome, founded on its eastern banks.
`what kind of car does jay gatsby drive`	`Jay Gatsby At the Buchanan home, Jordan Baker, Nick, Jay, and the Buchanans decide to visit New York City. Tom borrows Gatsby's yellow Rolls Royce to drive up to the city. On the way to New York City, Tom makes a detour at a gas station in "the Valley of Ashes", a run-down part of Long Island. The owner, George Wilson, shares his concern that his wife, Myrtle, may be having an affair. This unnerves Tom, who has been having an affair with Myrtle, and he leaves in a hurry.`
`who sings if i can dream about you`	`I Can Dream About You "I Can Dream About You" is a song performed by American singer Dan Hartman on the soundtrack album of the film Streets of Fire. Released in 1984 as a single from the soundtrack, and included on Hartman's album I Can Dream About You, it reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100.[1]`

Loss: SpladeLoss with these parameters:
json
1{ 2 "loss": "SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss(scale=1.0, similarity_fct='dot_score', gather_across_devices=False, directions=('query_to_doc',), partition_mode='joint')", 3 "document_regularizer_weight": 3e-05, 4 "query_regularizer_weight": 5e-05 5}

Training Hyperparameters

Non-Default Hyperparameters

per_device_train_batch_size: 16
num_train_epochs: 1
learning_rate: 1e-06
warmup_steps: 0.1
bf16: True
eval_strategy: steps
per_device_eval_batch_size: 16
batch_sampler: no_duplicates

All Hyperparameters

Click to expand

per_device_train_batch_size: 16
num_train_epochs: 1
max_steps: -1
learning_rate: 1e-06
lr_scheduler_type: linear
lr_scheduler_kwargs: None
warmup_steps: 0.1
optim: adamw_torch_fused
optim_args: None
weight_decay: 0.0
adam_beta1: 0.9
adam_beta2: 0.999
adam_epsilon: 1e-08
optim_target_modules: None
gradient_accumulation_steps: 1
average_tokens_across_devices: True
max_grad_norm: 1.0
label_smoothing_factor: 0.0
bf16: True
fp16: False
bf16_full_eval: False
fp16_full_eval: False
tf32: None
gradient_checkpointing: False
gradient_checkpointing_kwargs: None
torch_compile: False
torch_compile_backend: None
torch_compile_mode: None
use_liger_kernel: False
liger_kernel_config: None
use_cache: False
neftune_noise_alpha: None
torch_empty_cache_steps: None
auto_find_batch_size: False
log_on_each_node: True
logging_nan_inf_filter: True
include_num_input_tokens_seen: no
log_level: passive
log_level_replica: warning
disable_tqdm: False
project: huggingface
trackio_space_id: trackio
eval_strategy: steps
per_device_eval_batch_size: 16
prediction_loss_only: True
eval_on_start: False
eval_do_concat_batches: True
eval_use_gather_object: False
eval_accumulation_steps: None
include_for_metrics: []
batch_eval_metrics: False
save_only_model: False
save_on_each_node: False
enable_jit_checkpoint: False
push_to_hub: False
hub_private_repo: None
hub_model_id: None
hub_strategy: every_save
hub_always_push: False
hub_revision: None
load_best_model_at_end: False
ignore_data_skip: False
restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint: False
full_determinism: False
seed: 42
data_seed: None
use_cpu: False
accelerator_config: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}
parallelism_config: None
dataloader_drop_last: False
dataloader_num_workers: 0
dataloader_pin_memory: True
dataloader_persistent_workers: False
dataloader_prefetch_factor: None
remove_unused_columns: True
label_names: None
train_sampling_strategy: random
length_column_name: length
ddp_find_unused_parameters: None
ddp_bucket_cap_mb: None
ddp_broadcast_buffers: False
ddp_backend: None
ddp_timeout: 1800
fsdp: []
fsdp_config: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}
deepspeed: None
debug: []
skip_memory_metrics: True
do_predict: False
resume_from_checkpoint: None
warmup_ratio: None
local_rank: -1
prompts: None
batch_sampler: no_duplicates
multi_dataset_batch_sampler: proportional
router_mapping: {}
learning_rate_mapping: {}

Training Logs

Epoch	Step	Training Loss	Validation Loss	NanoMSMARCO_dot_ndcg@10	NanoNFCorpus_dot_ndcg@10	NanoNQ_dot_ndcg@10	NanoBEIR_mean_dot_ndcg@10
-1	-1	-	-	0.0157	0.0512	0.0608	0.0426
0.0501	310	248.3685	-	-	-	-	-
0.1002	620	31.2524	-	-	-	-	-
0.1503	930	2.0625	-	-	-	-	-
0.2001	1238	-	0.5480	0.3431	0.1704	0.4505	0.3213
0.2004	1240	0.5316	-	-	-	-	-
0.2505	1550	0.3379	-	-	-	-	-
0.3006	1860	0.1792	-	-	-	-	-
0.3507	2170	0.0867	-	-	-	-	-
0.4001	2476	-	0.1313	0.4516	0.2177	0.5110	0.3934
0.4008	2480	0.1055	-	-	-	-	-
0.4509	2790	0.0823	-	-	-	-	-
0.5010	3100	0.0790	-	-	-	-	-
0.5511	3410	0.0561	-	-	-	-	-
0.6002	3714	-	0.0984	0.4643	0.2282	0.5099	0.4008
0.6012	3720	0.0582	-	-	-	-	-
0.6513	4030	0.0530	-	-	-	-	-
0.7014	4340	0.0521	-	-	-	-	-
0.7515	4650	0.0522	-	-	-	-	-
0.8003	4952	-	0.0921	0.4995	0.2426	0.5048	0.4156
0.8016	4960	0.0480	-	-	-	-	-
0.8516	5270	0.0466	-	-	-	-	-
0.9017	5580	0.0612	-	-	-	-	-
0.9518	5890	0.0518	-	-	-	-	-
-1	-1	-	-	0.5051	0.2425	0.5007	0.4161

Framework Versions

Python: 3.11.6
Sentence Transformers: 5.3.0.dev0
Transformers: 5.3.0.dev0
PyTorch: 2.10.0+cu126
Accelerate: 1.12.0
Datasets: 4.3.0
Tokenizers: 0.22.2

Citation

BibTeX

Sentence Transformers

bibtex

@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,
    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",
    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = "11",
    year = "2019",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",
}

SpladeLoss

bibtex

@misc{formal2022distillationhardnegativesampling,
      title={From Distillation to Hard Negative Sampling: Making Sparse Neural IR Models More Effective},
      author={Thibault Formal and Carlos Lassance and Benjamin Piwowarski and Stéphane Clinchant},
      year={2022},
      eprint={2205.04733},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.IR},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.04733},
}

SparseMultipleNegativesRankingLoss

bibtex

@misc{oord2019representationlearningcontrastivepredictive,
      title={Representation Learning with Contrastive Predictive Coding},
      author={Aaron van den Oord and Yazhe Li and Oriol Vinyals},
      year={2019},
      eprint={1807.03748},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.LG},
      url={https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.03748},
}

FlopsLoss

bibtex

@article{paria2020minimizing,
    title={Minimizing flops to learn efficient sparse representations},
    author={Paria, Biswajit and Yeh, Chih-Kuan and Yen, Ian EH and Xu, Ning and Ravikumar, Pradeep and P{'o}czos, Barnab{'a}s},
    journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2004.05665},
    year={2020}
}

	query	answer
type	string	string
details	min: 10 tokens mean: 11.71 tokens max: 26 tokens	min: 4 tokens mean: 128.91 tokens max: 256 tokens